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Articulated robots are attracting the attention of artists worldwide. Due to their precise, tireless, and efficient nature, robots are now being deployed in different forms of creative expression, such as sculpting, choreography, immersive environments, and cinematography. While there is a growing interest among artists in robotics, programming such machines is a challenge for most professionals in the field, as robots require extensive coding experience and are primarily designed for industrial applications and environments. To enable artists to incorporate robots in their projects, we propose an end-user-friendly robot programming solution using an intuitive spatial computing environment designed for Microsoft Hololens 2. In our application, the robot movements are synchronized with a hologram via network communication. Using natural hand gestures, users can manipulate, animate, and record the hologram similar to 3D animation software, including the advantages of mixed reality interaction. Our solution not only gives artists the ability to translate their creative ideas and movements to an industrial machine but also makes human-robot interaction safer, as robots can now be accurately and effectively operated from a distance. We consider this an important step in a more human-driven robotics community, allowing creators without robot programming experience to easily script and perform complex sequences of robotic movement in service of new arts applications. Making robots more collaborative and safer for humans to interact with dramatically increases their utility, exposure, and potential for social interaction, opens new markets, expands creative industries, and directly locates them in highly visible public spaces. 

Programming industrial robots is difficult and expensive. Although recent work has made substantial progress in making it accessible to a wider range of users, it is often limited to simple programs and its usability remains untested in practice. In this article, we introduce Duplo, a block-based programming environment that allows end-users to program two-armed robots and solve tasks that require coordination. Duplo positions the program for each arm side-by-side, using the spatial relationship between blocks from each program to represent parallelism in a way that end-users can easily understand. This design was proposed by previous work, but not implemented or evaluated in a realistic programming setting. We performed a randomized experiment with 52 participants that evaluated Duplo on a complex programming task that contained several sub-tasks. We compared Duplo with RobotStudio Online YuMi, a commercial solution, and found that Duplo allowed participants to solve the same task faster and with greater success. By analyzing the information collected during our user study, we further identified factors that explain this performance difference, as well as remaining barriers, such as debugging issues and difficulties in interacting with the robot. This work represents another step towards allowing a wider audience of non-professionals to program, which might enable the broader deployment of robotics.